# 句法 Syntax

<script>ooboqoo.contentsRegExp = /H[123]/</script>
<style>
  span { background-color: #f6f6f6; padding: 0 8px; border-radius: 4px; }
</style>


## 19 主语


主语可以用下面这些成分表示：名词、代词、数词、动名词、不定式、词组、从句、名词化的其他词类。

> _To compromise_ appears advisable. 妥协可能是明智的。// 不定式  
> _Why he did it_ will remain a puzzle forever. 他为什么这样做将永远是个迷。// 从句  

### 19.2 用 it 作主语

it 最基本的用法是作人称代词

> // 代表刚提到的东西以避免重复  
> Look at that car. _It_'s going much too fast. 瞧那辆车，开得实在太快了。  
> 
> // 代表抽象的事物  
> _It_ was a great surprise to me when he did a thing like that.  
> 
> // 指动物或未知性别的婴儿  
> 
> // 代表一个彼此都知其所指的东西  
> Where does _it_ hurt? 哪儿疼？  

it 有时并不指具体东西，而指天气、时间、环境等，称为 "非人称代词 it"

> // 指天气  
> _It_'s raining. 在下雨。  
> 
> // 指时间  
> _It_'s Tuesday today.  
> 
> // 指环境  
> _It_'s quiet here.  
> 
> // 指距离  
> How far is _it_ to Kunming?  

#### 19.2.3 用于强调的 it

> _It_'s money that they want. 他们要的是钱。  

#### 19.2.4 先行主语 it

it 可作先行词，作为句子形式上的主语，而真正的主语移到句子后部。不致因主语太长显得*头重脚轻*。这种 it 称为 **先行主语**。

可移到句子后部区的主语最常见的是 *不定式*，另外 *动名词* 也不少。

> // be + 形容词 + 不定式  
> _It is better_ to be early. 比较 To be early is better.  
> 
> // be + 名词 + 不定式  
> _It would be a pity_ to miss this opportunity.  
> 
> // be + 介词短语 + 不定式  
> _It was against my principle_ to do that.  
> 
> // 及物动词 + 宾语 + 不定式  
> _It takes two_ to make a quarrel. (谚)吵架要有两个人。  

> // "be + 名词" 作谓语  
> _It_'s no use _asking me_. 问我没用  
> 
> // "be + 形容词" 作谓语  
> _Is it worthwhile_ quarrelling with him? 和他吵值得吗？  
> 
> // 其他结构作谓语  
> _It doesn't matter_ waiting a few more days. 再等几天没有关系。  

### 19.3 主语从句

主语从句有三种类型
* 由 that 引导的主语从句 <span>It's certain _that prices will go up_.</span>
* 由连接代词引导的主语从句 <span>_Why he left_ wasn't important.</span>
* 由关系代词型 what 或 whatever 引导的从句 <span>_Whatever she did_ was right.</span>

### 19.4 there 引导的句子

there 引导一种特殊句子，there 放在句首好似主语，但真正的主语在后面，表示 "有..."。此时读(弱读) _ðə_ 而平常的副词读 _ðeə_

> There's no problem. 没问题。  
> 
> // there 只是形式上的主语，真正的主语在后面，动词需要和后面的主语保持一致  
> Are there many parks in the city?  城里公园多吗？  
> Is there a car-park nearby?  附近有停车场吗？  


## 20 谓语

广义的谓语指主语之外的部分，主语是句子的主题，谓语指关于主题的情况。狭义的谓语主要指动词，*不包括宾语和状语*。

### 20.2 简单谓语 与 复合谓语

凡是由一个动词构成的，不管是什么时态、语态、语气，都属于简单谓语。大量成语动词可用作谓语，他们都属于简单谓语。

> She'_ll be leaving_ for Hong Kong on April 3rd. 她将于四月三日去香港。  
> I _shall have_ it _out_ with hime later. 以后我将和他谈清楚。

第一类复合谓语有些由 *情态动词 + 动词原形* 或 *不定式 + 其他词* 构成

> We _should have_ confidence in each other. 我们应当对彼此有信心。  
> We _used to swim_ every day when young. 我们小时候天天游泳。  

许多带复合宾语的句子改为被动结构后，里面都可说包含了一个复合谓语

> They _were made to work_ long hours. 他们被迫长时间工作。  

第二类复合谓语主要由 *系动词 + 表语* 构成

> It _sounds a good idea._  

### 20.3 表语

**表语** 可由下面这些成分表示：

* 名词
* 代词
* 数词
* 形容词
* 分词
* 动名词
* 不定式
* 副词
* 介词短语
* 词组
* 从句

#### 表语 vs 补语

表语 Predicate Nominative 通常是主语后面用来重新说明主语的名词、代词 和 形容词。它与主语通过连系动词相连，这类动词将主语与描述主语的词语连接在一起，而不表示动作。

*补(足)语 Complement = 主语补足语(就是表语) + 宾语补足语*


### 20.4 主谓一致

主语和谓语必须在数上一致，即复数主语须用复数谓语，单数主语须用单数谓语。


## 21 宾语

宾语的种类
* **直接宾语** 绝大多数及物动词都跟有直接宾语，成语动词有些也跟有宾语，表示动作的对象、承受者或后果
* **间接宾语** 双宾动词后可跟两个宾语，一个是直接宾语，一个是间接宾语，间接宾语表示动作是向某人或为某人做的
* **复合宾语** 是由两部分构成的宾语，后面部分可称为宾语的补语

> My wife (主语) sends (谓语) _you_ (间接宾语) _a toy car_ (直接宾语).  
> They elected _him vice-president_ (复合宾语：宾语 + 宾语的补语).  

宾语可由下面这些成分表示：名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、动名词、不定式、复合结构、从句

### 21.2 复合宾语

复合宾语主要有下面几种类型
* 名词（代词）+ 形容词 <span>I've never seen _you so cheerful_.</span>
* 名词（代词）+ 名词 <span>I find _her a very sensible woman_.</span>
* 名词（代词）+ 不定式 <span>He strongly advised _her not to do so_.</span>
* 名词（代词）+ 分词 <span>The teacher caught _a boy cheating_.</span> <span>She's having _her eyes tested_.</span>
* 名词（代词）+ 介词短语 或 副词 <span>Make _yourselves at home_.</span> <span>Let's turn _the TV off_.</span>

### 21.3 用 it 作宾语

人称代词 it 作宾语 <span>If he doesn't come, I can't help _it_. 如果他不来我也没辙。</span>

it 也可用作先行宾语，特别是用在一些复合宾语中 <span>She found _it_ difficult to convince him.</span>

### 21.4 宾语从句

* 由 that 引导的宾语从句，有时 that 可省略
* 由连接代（副）词引导的从句 <span>She was curious to know where we had been.</span>
* 由关系代词型 what 引导的从句 <span>Show me what you've bought.</span>

### 21.5 直接引语和间接引语

在引用别人的原话时，被引用的句子称为 **直接引语**

> "*I never eat meat,*" he explained.  
> "We wish we didn't have to take exams," said the children.  // 有时主语和动词位置可以颠倒(特别是主语较长时)

当用自己的话报道别人的话时，被报道的部分称为 **间接引语**

> Tom replied _that he was going by plane._


## 22 定语

定语可以用下面这些成分表示
* 形容词 <span>It's a _fine (windy, rainy, warm)_ day.</span>
* 代词(和限定词) <span>_Whose_ child is it?</span>
* 数词 <span>Is it your _first_ visit to Japan?</span>
* 名词或名词所有格 <span>What's your _government's_ attitude towards the problem?</span>
  - 名词经常作定语，有些已成为固定搭配，甚至构成合成词 <span>information desk</span> <span>first-class tickets</span>
* 分词(短语) <span>We have a very _crowded_ schedule. 我们的日程很紧。</span>
  - 现在分词作定语的时候不少，有些现在分词已变成形容词
  - 过去分词也常用作定语，有些已变成形容词
* 不定式(短语) <span>I'll go and get something _to drink_.</span>
* 介词短语 <span>No rose _without a thorn_. (谚)没有不带刺的玫瑰。</span>
* 副词 <span>The coulds _above_ began to get thicker.</span>
* 词组或合成词
  - 由 *名词 + of* 构成的定语非常多 <span>a glass of milk</span> <span>a pair of pants 一条裤子</span>
* 从句

### 22.3 定语从句

大多数定语从句对所修饰词的意思加以限制，称为 **限制性定语从句** Defining Attributive Clauses

**非限制性定语从句** Non-defining Attribute Clauses 对所修饰的词没有限制词义的作用，而只是补充一些说明，通常都有一个逗号把它和句子的其他部分分开。在译成中文时，这个从句多译成一个并列句。

> Peter, _who had been driving all day_, suggested stopping at the next town. 彼得开了一天的车，提议在下座城市停下来。

### 22.4 同位语

**限制性同位语** <span>My aunt _Lena_ is staying with me.</span>

**非限制性同位语** <span>This is Professor Baker, _head of our department_. 这是我们的系主任贝克教授。</span>

很多名词后可以跟 that 引导的从句，说明其内容，称为 **同位语从句** <span>There was no __doubt__ _that he was a fine scholar_ 学者.</span>


## 23 状语

状语可以由以下成分表示

* 副词，副词的主要作用就是做状语，用以修饰动词、形容词、副词 等 <span>He behaved _badly_.</span> <span>She speaks French _well_.</span>
* 介词短语
* 不定式(短语)
  - 不定式常可作状语来表示 目的、结果、程度、原因 等 <span>She shuddered _to think of it_. 想到这事她不寒而栗。</span>
  - 在许多作表语的形容词后可跟不定式作状语(多表示原因) <span>I'm surprised _to hear you say that_.
  - 还可以用来修饰整个句子，可称为 句子状语 <span>_To be frank_, your English is not flawless.</span>
* 介词(短语)
  - be + 形容词 + 介词短语 <span>He was fond of history.</span>
* 形容词
* 词组
* 复合结构
* 从句
* 间或可以用名词作状语


## 24 语序

### 24.1 自然语序与倒装语序

如果谓语提到主语前面，则句子为 **倒装语序** Inverted Order，整个谓语提前，称为 **全部倒装** Full Inversion，只有部分谓语提前称为 **部分倒装** Partial Inversion。

> Down fell half a dozen apples. 忽然掉下五六只苹果来。  // 全部倒装  
> How are you doing? 你好吗？  // 部分倒装  


疑问句大部分都用倒装语序，不管是一般问句、特殊问句、选择问句 还是 反疑问句。

### 24.2 一些常见的倒装句


### 24.3 宾语的位置

宾语通常的位置
* 宾语通常跟在谓语后面 <span>He wrote _his first novel_ at 17.</span>
* 宾语由疑问词表示或修饰 等场景下，宾语要放在主语前面 <span>_How many pages_ have you read?</span>
* 有两个宾语时，一般间接宾语在前，直接宾语在后

当一个宾语或宾语从句需要 强调 时，有时可以提前

> _All this_ we must take fully into account. 这一切我们必须充分考虑。  
> _Whatever he does_ he does well. 他做什么事都很好。  

当宾语（加上它的修饰语）较长时，我们常把状语放在它前面以保持句子的平衡

> She announced at the meeting _that she was going to resign_. 她在会上宣布她准备辞职。  

### 24.4 定语的位置

定语通常的位置
* 单词定语一般放在所修饰的词前面。<span>developing countries</span>
* 由副词表示的定语通常放在所修饰词后面。<span>Is there anything _on_ tomorrow? 明天有什么活动吗？</span>
* 以下情况，定语都放在所修饰词后面
  - 定语从句 <span>The noise _he made_ voke everybody up.</span>
  - 介词短语 <span>He was hired to illustrate a book _on the birds of the world_. 他受雇为一本描写世界鸟类的书画插画。</span>
  - 分词短语 和 不定式短语
  - 其他作定语的短语

定语和所修饰词分开的情况
* 定语有时和它修饰的词分开 <span>What do you have _to say_ in this regard? 关于这点你有什么要说？// to say 修饰 what</span>
* 一个名词有两个定语时，其中一个就不得不和它修饰的词分开 <span>This is the book _I bought about space flight_.</span>

定语的顺序 ...

### 24.5 状语的位置

状语通常的位置
* 状语通常放在谓语后面
* 若有宾语则放在宾语后面 <span>You can dial Rome directly. 你可以直接拨电话到罗马。</span>
* 在被动结构中状语可放在过去分词前面 <span>He was _rightly_ punished. 他受到应得的惩罚。</span>
* 如果有几个时间或地点状语，一般小单位在前，大单位在后 <span>He was born at 9:30 on Thursday May 5th 1998.</span>


## 25 省略句

为了省事，人们常把某些词省掉，特别是在口语中。这种现象称为 **省略 Ellipsis**，这种句子称为 **省略句 Elliptical Sentence**。

被省略的部分可能是
* 主语 <span>(I) Thank you.</span> <span>(I) Hope to see you again.</span>
* 主语和助动词 <span>(I've) Got to go now.</span> <span>(Are you) Looking for me?</span>
* 谓语或谓语的部分 <span>(Is there) Anything wrong?</span> <span>(Does) Anybody want to go?</span>
* 宾语 <span>"He's a kind man." "I know (it)."</span>

有时句子大部分都省略，只剩下
* 表语 <span>(I'm) Sorry!</span> <span>Nice you are back.</span>
* 宾语 <span>(I beg your) Pardon. 请再说一遍。</span> <span>Sorry, (you've dialed the) wrong number.</span>
* 状语 <span>(Come) This way, please.</span> <span>When are you going? -- Tomorrow.</span>
* 其他

省略句的意思
* 省略句有时本身意思很清楚
* 有时意思需从上下文中推断
* 某些描绘性文字（如小说、日记、摘要等）中，有时也有词省略，但由于有上下文，意思很清楚

### 从句的简化

主从复合句包含两个及以上的从句时，其中常常有重复的元素。剔除重复元素，让句子结构更精简，表意更清晰，就是简化从句。

言贵简洁，如果说简单句是初级句型，复合句是中级句型，那么简化过的从句就是高级句型。用有限的字数，承载更多的意思，是语言进阶的一个目标。

#### 从句简化通用规则

*省略从句主语*：当主语和从句的主语一致时，或从句主语是不定代词时，省略会更简洁。

> // 从句与主句主语重复，可省略  
> The man *who works for that company* is my friend.  
> The man *working for the company* is my friend.  
> 
> // 宾语从句和动名词都含有名词属性  
> She forgot *that she had watched that movie before*.  
> She forgot *watching that movie before*.  
> 
> // one 是不定代词，表泛指，可省略  
> It is a good idea *that one should bring a bottle of wine* while *one goes to friends' homes* for dinner.  
> It is a good idea *to bring a bottle of wine* while *going to friends' homes* for dinner.  

*省略从句主语和系动词*：系动词单独表述不清晰，不能独立作谓语，在从句中省略不会影响原句意思。

> The girl *(who is)* holding a book is my sister.  
> While *(he was)* a young boy, he was always ready to help others.  
> He stood up as if *(he were)* to say something.  

*从句有情态动词时变不定式*：所有情态动词可以改成（be 动词加）不定式。

> // 动词不定式作目的状语  
> He worked hard *so that he could* save some money.  
> He worked hard *to* save some money.  
> 
> // 动词不定式作后置定语  
> The conference *which will be* held this afternoon is bound to be a great success.  
> The conference *to be* held this afternoon is bound to be a great success.  
> 
> // 动词不定式作宾补  
> She told me *that I must* go at once.  
> She told me *to* go at once.  
> 
> // 动词不定式作形式主语  
> It's required *that everyone should* keep silent during the exam.  
> It's required *to* keep silent during the exam.  

#### 名词性从句的简化

名词性从句简化后往往由动名词或不定式来代替，因为这两种形态都可以当名词使用。

> I remember *that I have closed the door*.  
> I remember *having closed the door*.  

> I hope *that I can catch up with you*.  
> I hope *to catch up with you*.  

当从句中有被动语态或形容词时，修改为属于名词范畴的 `being + V-ed/adj.`。

> *That you are busy* should not be the excuse for making mistakes.  
> *Your being busy* should not be an excuese for making mistakes.  

当从句主语和主句主语不一致时，如果省略从句主语会导致表意不清，此时可用别的方法简化句子

> I can't stand *that he texts my girlfriend every day*.  
> I can't stand *his texting my girlfriend every day*.  
> 

#### 形容词性从句（定语从句）的简化

定语从句中的主动语态可简化为现在分词形式

> I changed my laptop *which collapses every now and then*.  
> I changed my laptop *collapsing every now and then*.  

定语从句中的被动语态可简化成过去分词形式

> The bridge, *which was built 50 years ago*, collapsed in the last storm.  
> The bridge *built 50 years ago* collapsed in the last storm.  

定语从句中的情态动词可简化成不定式

> She is the one *who will go on a business trip*.  
> She is the one *to go on a business trip*.  

非限定性定语从句中的be动词加形容词，可简化为形容词，作插入语

> The girl, *who is slim and smart*, is my girlfriend.  
> The girl, *slim and smart*, is my girlfriend.  

非限定性定语从句中的be动词加形容词，可简化为形容词，作同位语

> Mr. Smith, *who is our new teacher*, is very kind to us.  
> Mr. Smith, *our new teacer*, is very kind to us.  

当从句主语和主句主语不一致时，如果省略从句主语会导致表意不清，可用 “介词 + 原从句主语” 来作不定式的逻辑主语

> I have hundreds of books *that you can borrow*.  
> I have hundreds of books *for you to borrow*.  

#### 副词性从句（状语从句）的简化

状语从句中的被动语态可简化为过去分词形式

> *As it was weakened by the storm*, the bridge was no longer safe.  
> *Weakened by the storm*, the bridge was no longer safe.  

状语从句中的进行式可简化为现在分词形式，从属连词在不影响句意的前提下可省略

> *While he was walking down the street*, he bumped into his old friend.  
> *While walking down the street*, he bumped into his old friend.  // 另，此处的 while 也可省略

状语从句表目的或结果，可简化成不定式

> I learn English, *so that I can communicate with foreigners*.  
> I learn English *to communicate with foreigners*.  


状语从句中有be动词加形容词，可简化为形容词

> *As he was sure that he would win*, he didn't feel nervous at all.  
> *Sure that he would win*, he didn't feel nervous at all.  

状语从句中，如从句主语和主句主语不同，则无法省略，但可
* 从句改写成独立主格结构
* 换句子主语

> Worried about being late, a taxi seemed like a good idea. // 省略产生歧义  
> *The girl* worried about being late, *a taxi* seemed like a good idea. // 独立主格  
> Worried about being late, *the girl* got a taxi.  // 换主语  

除了省略，状语从句 *有时还可转换为介词短语*

> Don't do anything *until you get further notice*.  
> Don't do anything *until further notice*.  
> 
> *Although she opposed it*, he went out.  
> *Despite / In spite of her opposition*, he went out.



## 26 句型的转换

同一个意思常有许多表达方法。例如"他英文很好"就可以有许多表达方法，如:

> He knows English very well.  
> He has a good knowledge of English.  
> He has a good command of English.  
> His English is perfect (superb, wonderful).  

这是一种 *词汇手段*。还有一个办法，就是利用不同句型表达同一思想，这是一种 *语法手段*，如"你这样做是对的"这句话可以用不同句型来表示:

> You were right to do that.  
> You were right in doing that.  
> It was right for you to do that.  
> It was right of you to do that.  

学习用词汇手段来使表达方式多样化是一个漫长的过程，随着语言修养的提高，表达的方法也会逐渐丰富，而用语法手段来提高表达能力相对要容易一些。这种把一种结构改为另一种结构来表达同一思想的做法，可称为句型的转换 (Transformation of Sentence Patterns)。适当探讨这个问题，可以丰富我们的表达能力，使我们使用语言更精确。






## 27 标点符号 Punctuation

引语中的标点符号：
* 在直接引语中，可以用感叹号和问号
* 如引用词在前，也可用句号
* *如引用词在后，则不能用句号，而需用逗号*